Keel Infrastructure Valuation Multiples

Visa is the largest payment processor in the world. In fiscal 2025, it processed almost $17 trillion in total volume. Visa operates in over 200 countries and processes transactions in over 160 currencies. Its systems are capable of processing over 65,000 transactions per second.

Mastercard is the second-largest payment processor in the world, having processed close to $10 trillion in volume during 2024. Mastercard operates in over 200 countries and processes transactions in over 150 currencies.

Oracle provides enterprise applications and infrastructure offerings through a variety of flexible IT deployment models, including on-premises, cloud-based, and hybrid. Founded in 1977, Oracle pioneered the first commercial SQL-based relational database management system, which is commonly used by the world’s largest companies for high-volume online transaction processing workloads. Besides databases, Oracle also sells enterprise resource planning platforms and cloud infrastructure that play an increasingly important role in large language model training and inferencing.

Arista Networks is a networking equipment provider that primarily sells Ethernet switches and software to data centers. Its marquee product is its extensible operating system that runs a single image across every single one of its devices. The firm operates as one reportable segment. It has steadily gained market share since its founding in 2004, with a focus on high-speed applications. Arista counts Microsoft and Meta Platforms as its largest customers and derives roughly three-fourths of its sales from North America.

American Express is a global financial institution, operating in about 130 countries, that provides consumers and businesses charge and credit card payment products. The company also operates a highly profitable merchant payment network. It operates in four segments: US consumer services, US commercial services, international card services, and global merchant and network services. In addition to payment products, the company's commercial business offers expense management tools, consulting services, and business loans.

Charles Schwab is one of the largest retail-oriented financial-services companies in the US, with $11.9 trillion in client assets across its brokerage, banking, asset management, custody, financial advisory, and wealth-management businesses at the end of 2025. While best known for its retail brokerage offering, Schwab generates the lion’s share of its revenue and profits through its Charles Schwab Bank and asset management segments. The firm is a dominant player in registered investment advisor custody, with over 40% market share, and has recently pushed into wealth management with robo-advisory, direct indexing, and other managed-investment solutions.

Capital One is a diversified financial services holding company headquartered in McLean, Virginia. Originally a spinoff of Signet Financial’s credit card division in 1994, the company is now primarily involved in credit card lending, auto loans, and commercial lending. Following the acquisition of Discover in 2025, the firm also has a modest personal loan business, though credit card lending provides the majority of the bank's revenue.

S&P Global provides data and benchmarks to capital and commodity market participants. Its ratings business is the largest credit rating agency in the world and S&P's largest segment by profitability. S&P's largest segment by revenue is market intelligence, which provides desktop, data and advisory solutions, enterprise solutions, and credit/risk solutions mostly in the financial-services industry. S&P's other segments include energy (formerly commodity insights, this segment includes Platts and other data), mobility (Carfax), and indexes. S&P plans to spin off mobility in 2026.

Equinix is one of the leading providers of cloud- and carrier-neutral data centers, offering colocation and interconnection services to hyperscalers and businesses. Equinix operates 270 properties in 77 metropolitan areas across 36 countries, serving over 10,000 customers. About 70% of Equinix’s revenue comes from renting physical space, which allows hyperscalers and other clients to store servers, data storage, and networking equipment. The other 30% of revenue is generated primarily through interconnection services (20%) and other managed services (10%).

Robinhood Markets Inc is creating a modern financial services platform. It designs its own products and services and delivers them through a single, app-based cloud platform supported by proprietary technology. Its vertically integrated platform has enabled the introduction of new products and services such as cryptocurrency trading, dividend reinvestment, fraud detection, derivatives, fractional shares, recurring investments, and others.

Based in Chicago, CME Group operates exchanges giving investors, suppliers, and businesses the ability to trade futures and derivatives based on interest rates, equity indexes, foreign currencies, energy, metals, and commodities. The Chicago Mercantile Exchange was founded in 1898 and in 2002 completed its IPO. Since then, CME Group has consolidated parts of the industry by merging with crosstown rival CBOT Holdings in 2007 before acquiring Nymex Holdings in 2008 and NEX in 2018. In addition, the company has a 27% stake in S&P Dow Jones Indices, making the Chicago Mercantile Exchange the exclusive venue to trade and clear S&P futures contracts. Through CME's acquisition of NEX, it also expanded into cash foreign exchange, fixed-income trading, and collateral optimization.

NTT owns NTT DoCoMo, the largest wireless operator in Japan, with 53 million mobile handset subscribers. It also owns NTT East and NTT West, the two regional incumbent fixed-line operators in Japan, with about 23.6 million broadband lines (around 72% of which are wholesaled). The firm also provides IT and communications systems integration via NTT Communications and NTT Data.

MercadoLibre runs the largest e-commerce marketplace in Latin America, with about 150 million active users and more than 600 million active listings across 18 countries stitching into its commerce network or fintech solutions when last reported. The company operates a host of complementary businesses to its core online shop, with shipping solutions (Mercado Envios), a payment and financing operation (Mercado Pago and Mercado Credito), advertisements (Mercado Clics), classifieds, and a turnkey e-commerce solution (Mercado Shops) rounding out its arsenal. MercadoLibre generates revenue from final value fees, advertising royalties, payment processing, insertion fees, subscription fees, and interest income from consumer and small-business lending.

Vertiv has roots tracing back to 1946 when its founder, Ralph Liebert, developed an air-cooling system for mainframe data rooms. As computers started making their way into commercial applications in 1965, Liebert developed one of the first computer room air conditioning, or CRAC, units, enabling the precise control of temperature and humidity. The firm has slowly expanded its data center portfolio through internal product development and the acquisition of thermal and power management products like condensers, busways, and switches. Vertiv has global operations today; its products can be found in data centers in most regions throughout the world.

Intercontinental Exchange is a vertically integrated operator of financial exchanges and provides ancillary data products. Though the company is probably best known for its ownership of the New York Stock Exchange, which it acquired in 2013, ICE operates a large derivatives exchange, too. The company's largest commodity futures product is the ICE Brent crude futures contract. In addition to the exchanges business, which is about 54% of net revenue, Intercontinental Exchange has used a series of acquisitions to create its mortgage technology business (22% of net revenue) and fixed-income and data-services segment (24% of net revenue).

Intuit serves small and midsize businesses with accounting software QuickBooks and online marketing platform Mailchimp. The company also operates retail tax filing tool TurboTax, personal finance platform Credit Karma, and a suite of professional tax offerings for accountants. Founded in the mid-1980s, Intuit enjoys a dominant market share for small-to-midsize business accounting and self-serve tax filing in the US.

American Tower owns and operates about 150,000 wireless towers throughout the US, Asia, Latin America, Europe, and Africa. It also owns and/or operates 30 data centers in 11 US markets after acquiring CoreSite. On its towers, the company has a very concentrated customer base, with most revenue in each market generated by the top few mobile carriers. The company operates more than 40,000 towers in the US, which accounted for about half of total revenue in 2024. Outside the US, American Tower operates about 47,000 towers in Latin America (dominated by Brazil), 32,000 towers in Europe, and 27,000 towers in Africa. American Tower operates as a REIT.

Moody’s, along with S&P Ratings, is a leading provider of credit ratings on fixed-income securities. The ratings segment, Moody’s Investors Service, includes corporates, structured finance, financial institutions, and public finance ratings. MIS represents a majority of the firm’s profit and often (depending on bond issuance levels) a majority of the firm's revenue. The other segment, Moody’s Analytics, consists of decision solutions, research and insights, and data and information.

Nu Holdings Ltd provides digital banking services. It offers several financial services such as Credit cards, Personal accounts, Investments, Personal Loans, Insurance, Mobile payments, Business Accounts, and Rewards. The company earns the majority of its revenue in Brazil.

Digital Realty is one of the leading providers of cloud- and carrier-neutral data centers, offering colocation and interconnection services to hyperscalers and large businesses. Digital Realty operates 300 properties in 57 metropolitan areas across 31 countries, serving 5,000 customers. Renting physical space accounts for about 90% of Digital Realty’s revenue. The firm enables hyperscalers and other clients to store servers, data, and networking equipment. The other 10% of revenue is generated primarily through interconnection services (8%) and other fee income (2%).

Bajaj Finance Ltd is the holding company for various financial services businesses under the Bajaj Group, which operates in India. The company is an NBFC in India offering payments, partnerships, services, and lending solutions to customers. The company's model is focused on the acquisition of customers and offering multiple loans and services on a cross-sell basis to meet their financial service needs. The company provides discretionary spending across consumer electronics, furniture, and digital products in India. The company's strategies and structure are closely aligned with those of commercial banks in India. All of its revenue is generated from India.

Hong Kong Exchanges and Clearing is a vertically integrated securities exchange business offering listing, data, trading, clearing and settlement services across equities, debt and derivatives. HKEx, like Hong Kong itself, functions as a gateway between China and the rest of the world. HKEx serves as a preferred listing venue for Chinese companies outside of China and, through the Connect Scheme, offers two-way trading for a growing group of financial products with the Shanghai Stock Exchange and the Shenzhen Stock Exchange.

Deutsche Boerse is a financial exchange company headquartered in Frankfurt, Germany. The company primarily generates revenue through its Eurex and Clearstream segments. Eurex allows for the trading and clearing of derivatives. Clearstream offers custody and settlement services for domestic and international securities, as well as collateral management services. Other segments include Xetra, which generates revenue through trading and clearing cash equities, STOXX (an index business), and several others.

London Stock Exchange Group is a fully integrated financial exchange company covering the financial market value chain from primary and secondary markets across multiple asset classes over data, index, and analytics down to clearing and post-trading reporting. With the acquisition of Refinitiv, LSEG generates about two thirds of its revenue from data and analytics including its FTSE Russell and WM/Refinitiv benchmarks as well as data feeds and terminals. The group is also a majority shareholder in Tradeweb, one of the dominant global fixed-income trading venues, as well as LCH, the largest clearinghouse for over-the-counter swaps globally.

Founded in 1971, Nasdaq is primarily known for its equity exchange, but in addition to its trading business (about 22.5% of sales), the company sells market and financial data to investors, offers Nasdaq-branded indexes, and lists companies through its capital access segment (42.5%). Nasdaq's newest segment, financial technology, was primarily constructed through the acquisitions of Verafin and Adenza and has expanded the company into capital management, financial crime, and regulatory compliance software (35%) as it seeks to become a diversified technology company.

Founded in 2009, Block provides payment services to merchants, along with related services. The company also launched Cash App, a person-to-person payment network. In 2024, Square's payment volume was almost USD 250 million.

PayPal was spun off from eBay in 2015 and provides electronic payment solutions to merchants and consumers, with a focus on online transactions. The company had 434 million active accounts at the end of 2024. The company also owns Venmo, a person-to-person payment platform.

Workday is a software company that offers human capital management, financial management, and business planning solutions for enterprises. Known for being a cloud-only software provider, Workday was founded in 2005 and is headquartered in Pleasanton, California.

Founded in 2012, Coinbase is the leading cryptocurrency exchange platform in the United States. The company intends to be the safe and regulation-compliant point of entry for retail investors and institutions into the cryptocurrency economy. Users can establish an account directly with the firm, instead of using an intermediary, and many choose to allow Coinbase to act as a custodian for their cryptocurrency, giving the company breadth beyond that of a traditional financial exchange. While the company still generates the majority of its revenue from transaction fees charged to its retail customers, Coinbase uses internal investment and acquisitions to expand into adjacent businesses, such as prime brokerage and data analytics.

Thomson Reuters is a leading global provider of business information services, delivering trusted data, technology, and expertise to professionals across legal, tax, accounting, risk, compliance, and the news and media sectors. Headquartered in Toronto, Canada, the company combines deep domain knowledge with data and software solutions to help clients make informed decisions, manage complexity, and drive efficiency. Thomson Reuters serves legal and accounting/tax professionals, corporations, and governments worldwide, but around 75% of revenue is generated in the US. The company is known for flagship products such as Westlaw, UltraTax CS, and Reuters News.

Constellation Software is an acquirer, manager, and developer of vertical market software, or VMS, businesses globally. VMS differentiates from horizontal software in that it provides mission critical solutions within a specific industry for customers in a particular market. Constellation operates through a decentralized model in which each business operates as its own independent entity. Managers of individual businesses are incentivized to optimize their business for returns on invested capital and revenue growth. Excess cash generated by the individual businesses is repatriated to portfolio managers who focus on allocating as much capital as possible on new acquisitions. As of 2025, Constellation consisted of over 1,000 individual businesses and 64,000 employees.

Quanta Computer Inc is an original design manufacturer of notebook computers and electronic hardware for use in communication, networking, consumer electronics, auto electronics, and cloud computing solutions. Its products include enterprise network systems, home entertainment systems, rack-mount servers, data center networking switches, high-density storage solutions, encoding cameras, and smart home devices. The Majority of the firm's revenue is generated in the American region, with the rest coming from countries across the world.

East Money Information Co Ltd is engaged in securities business, financial e-commerce service business, financial data service business, and Internet advertising service business. It mainly provides paid financial data services, financial e-commerce services, and Internet advertisement services through its Website, eastmoney.com. It generates majority of ots revenue from the securities business.

Interactive Brokers is a large, automated, retail and institutional brokerage that boasted nearly $780 billion in customer equity at the end of 2025. The company cut its teeth as a market maker, introducing US financial markets to automated and algorithmic training before expanding into brokerage services in 1993. The firm has a wide-ranging client base, with its best-in-class order execution and extremely low margin lending rates catering to a sophisticated audience of hedge funds, proprietary traders, and introducing brokers that account for about 45% of the firm’s commissions. With operations spanning more than 160 electronic exchanges, 36 countries, and 28 currencies, Interactive Brokers caters to a global clientele, with more than 80% of active accounts sitting outside the US.

MSCI has described its mission as enabling investors to build better portfolios for a better world. MSCI's largest and most profitable segment is its index segment, where it provides benchmarking to asset managers and asset owners. MSCI boasts over $18 trillion in benchmarked assets, including over $2.3 trillion in ETF assets linked to MSCI indexes. The MSCI analytics segment provides portfolio management and risk management analytics software to asset managers and asset owners. In its sustainability and climate segment, MSCI provides ESG data to the investment industry. In private assets, MSCI provides real restate reporting, market data, benchmarking, and analytics to investors and real estate managers.

Rocket Companies is a financial services company that was originally founded as Rock Financial in 1985 and is currently based in Detroit. Rocket Companies offers a wide array of services and products but is best known for its Rocket Mortgage business. The company’s mortgage lending operations are split between its direct-to-consumer lending, which sees borrowers accessing the company’s lending arm directly through either its mobile app or website, and its partner network where mortgage brokers and other firms use Rocket’s origination process to offer loans to their customers. The company has rapidly gained market share in recent years and will also be the largest mortgage servicer in the US following its acquisition of the Mr. Cooper Group.

NetApp Inc is a provider of enterprise data management and storage solutions. The company's segments include Hybrid Cloud and Public Cloud. It generates maximum revenue from the Hybrid Cloud segment. The Hybrid Cloud segment offers a portfolio of storage management and infrastructure solutions that help customers recast their traditional data centers with the power of the cloud. This portfolio is designed to operate with public clouds to unlock the potential of hybrid, multi-cloud operations. Hybrid Cloud is composed of software, hardware, and related support, as well as professional and other services. Geographically, the company generates the majority of its revenue from the United States, Canada and Latin America (Americas).

Adyen is a payment company that provides merchants with a single platform to accept e-commerce, mobile, and point-of-sale payments in multiple countries using various payment schemes and methodologies. Adyen started out providing only gateway and payment processing services to merchants but soon expanded into merchant acquiring services as well. Adyen obtained a banking license to improve settlement of merchant accounts.

Experian is one of the leading credit bureaus in North America and the United Kingdom, providing the consumer information that is the basis for making lending decisions. The company also provides decision analytics, marketing data, and direct-to-consumer credit products and services. Roughly one quarter of the company's revenue is generated outside of North America and the United Kingdom, primarily in Latin America and Asia.

Crown Castle owns or manages roughly 40,000 wireless towers in the United States. It leases space on its towers to wireless service providers, which install equipment to support their wireless networks. The company has a very concentrated customer base, with about 75% of its revenue from the Big Three US mobile carriers: Verizon, T-Mobile, and AT&T. Crown Castle has plans to divest its fiber business, which is expected to be finalized in the first half of 2026. After that, it will be a stand-alone tower operator. Crown Castle operates as a real estate investment trust.

Founded in 1973, Cboe controls the largest option exchange in the US, which provides around 60% of the firm's revenue. The company is best known for its proprietary S&P 500 and VIX index options, which it offers through an exclusive contract with S&P Global. The firm moved into US and European equities through the $3.4 billion acquisition of BATS in 2017. Cboe has continued to look to expand internationally, using acquisitions to build a presence in both Canada and Australia.

LPL Financial is the largest US independent broker-dealer, with more than 32,000 financial advisors affiliated with its platform and roughly 11 million customer accounts at the end of 2025. The firm earns the bulk of its profit from interest income earned on client cash balances and from advisory fees and commissions tied to the $2.4 trillion in assets under management or advisory on its platform at year-end 2025. LPL specializes in the provision of turnkey wealth management services for affiliated independent advisors, but maintains a diverse array of affiliation modalities, running the gamut from more traditional employee models to a pure RIA custody approach. It earns tuck-in revenue from recordkeeping fees and the provision of software tools and services to its advisor base.

PT DCI Indonesia Tbk is a data center provider in Indonesia. It provides reliable, well networked, and well-managed cloud and carrier-neutral data center infrastructure services in Indonesia. The company operates in two segments: Colocation services and Others. The services offered by the company include Colocation, Cross Connect, Flexspace, Smarthands, CloudConnect, and DCI Internet Exchange.

Corpay Inc is a corporate payments company that helps businesses and consumers manage and pay their expenses. Its suite of modern payment solutions helps customers manage vehicle-related expenses, lodging expenses, and corporate payments. Its reportable segments are; Vehicle Payments, Corporate Payments, Lodging Payments, and Other. The group's geographic areas are the United States, Brazil, the United Kingdom, and Other.

Fiserv is a leading provider of core processing and complementary services, such as electronic funds transfer, payment processing, and loan processing, for US banks and credit unions, with a focus on small and midsize banks. Following its 2019 merger with First Data, Fiserv also provides payment processing services to merchants. About 10% of the company’s revenue is generated internationally.

Synchrony Financial, originally a spinoff of GE Capital's retail financing business, is the largest provider of private-label credit cards in the United States by both outstanding receivables and purchasing volume. Synchrony partners with other firms to market its credit products in their physical stores as well as on their websites and mobile applications. Synchrony operates through three segments: retail card (private-label and co-branded general-purpose credit cards), payment solutions (promotional financing for large ticket purchases), and CareCredit (financing for elective healthcare procedures).

Founded in 2012, Affirm is a market leader in the buy-now, pay-later space with around $36 billion in transaction volume in fiscal 2025. Affirm offers both zero-interest financing, which is merchant subsidized, and interest-bearing loans, which function as personal loans that are approved on a per-transaction basis. Over 70% of Affirm's transaction volume comes from its interest-bearing loans, which also comprise the majority of its revenue. Affirm operates in the United States, which accounted for more than 95% of its revenue in 2025, but the firm has also expanded to Canada and the United Kingdom.

Global Payments is a leading provider of payment processing and software solutions and focuses on serving small and midsize merchants. The company operates in 30 countries and generates about one fourth of its revenue from outside North America, primarily in Europe and Asia. In 2019, Global Payments merged with Total System Services in an all-stock deal that gave Total System Services shareholders 48% of the combined company’s shares. The merger added issuer processing operations.