Ludus Valuation Multiples

SoftBank is a Japan-based telecom and e-commerce conglomerate that has expanded mainly through acquisitions, and its key assets include a 40%-owned mobile and fixed broadband telecom operator business in Japan. It also owns 90% of semiconductor chip designer Arm Holdings following the 2023 IPO of this business, and has a vast portfolio of mainly internet- and e-commerce-focused early-stage investments. It is also a general partner of the USD 100 billion SoftBank Vision Fund 1 and sole investor in SoftBank Vision Fund 2, both of which primarily invest in pre-IPO internet and AI companies. Recently, it has begun investing in OpenAI.

BlackRock is the largest asset manager in the world, with $14.041 trillion in assets under management at the end of December 2025. Its product mix is diverse, with 55% of managed assets in equity strategies, 23% in fixed income, 9% in multi-asset classes, 6% in money market funds, and 5% in alternatives. Passive strategies account for more than two-thirds of long-term AUM, with the company's ETF platform maintaining a leading market share domestically and on a global basis. Product distribution is weighted more toward institutional clients, which, by our calculations, account for around 80% of AUM. BlackRock is geographically diverse, with clients in more than 100 countries and more than one-third of managed assets coming from investors domiciled outside the US and Canada.

Blackstone is the world's largest alternative-asset manager with $1.242 trillion in total asset under management, including $906.2 billion in fee-earning assets under management, at the end of September 2025. The company operates with scale in each of its major product lines: private equity (26% of fee-earning AUM and 33% of base management fees), real estate/real assets (31% and 35%), private credit (34% and 25%), and other alternatives (9% and 7%). While the firm primarily serves institutional investors (84% of AUM), it also caters to clients in the high-net-worth channel (16%). Blackstone operates through 25 offices in the Americas (8), Europe and the Middle East (9), and the Asia-Pacific region (8).

Investor AB is an industrial holding company with a long-term, active investment portfolio plan. The operations are divided into three business areas: Listed Companies, Patricia Industries, and Investments in EQT. Geographically, the company operates in Sweden, Europe, U.S, and Other countries.

Brookfield Corp is an investment firm focused on building long-term wealth for institutions and individuals. It has seven operating segments: Asset Management, Wealth Solutions, Renewable Power and Transition, Infrastructure, Private Equity, Real Estate and Corporate Activities. It invests in real assets that form the backbone of the economy to deliver risk-adjusted returns to stakeholders. The company generates the majority of its revenue from Asset Management. It has a geographic presence in the UK, the United States, Australia, Canada, Brazil, India, Colombia, Germany, Other Europe, Other Asia, and other countries.

KKR is one of the world's largest alternative asset managers, with $723.2 billion in total managed assets, including $585.0 billion in fee-earning AUM, at the end of September 2025. The company has two core segments: asset management (which includes private markets—private equity, credit, infrastructure, energy, and real estate—and public markets—primarily credit and hedge/investment fund platforms) and insurance (following the firm's initial investment in, and then ultimate purchase of, Global Atlantic Financial Group, which is engaged in retirement/annuity and life insurance lines as well as reinsurance).

Brookfield Asset Management is one of the world's largest alternative-asset managers, with USD 1.151 trillion in total managed assets, including USD 580.7 billion in fee-earning AUM, at the end of September 2025. The company has three main business segments: private credit (USD 349.0 billion in total AUM and USD 262.8 billion in fee-earning AUM), private equity (USD 151.0 billion/USD 46.3 billion), and real estate/real assets (USD 651.0 billion/USD 271.6 billion). The firm primarily serves institutional investors (90% of AUM) and high-net-worth individuals (10%), and is diversified globally, with 67% of revenue from the Americas, 20% from EMEA, and 13% from Asia-Pacific. Canadian-based Brookfield Corporation owns 73% of Brookfield's outstanding Class A shares.

Apollo is one of the world's largest alternative asset managers, with $908.4 billion in total assets under management, or AUM, including $685.0 billion in fee-earning assets, at the end of September 2025. The company has two core operating segments: asset management and retirement services. Apollo operates with scale in each of its major product lines-private equity (with $125.6 billion in total AUM and $71.7 billion in fee-earning AUM), real estate/real assets ($59.6 billion/$27.1 billion), and private credit ($723.2 billion/$586.2 billion). Apollo has a distribution profile that is likely not too far off from the industry averages-with 84% of its assets held by institutional investors and 16% by high-net-worth clients.

Swedish conglomerate Investor AB set up EQT as its private equity division in 1994. In its early days, EQT focused primarily on private equity investments in Sweden and the rest of Scandinavia. Today, EQT is one of the largest global private-market investors, with funds that focus on private equity, real estate, and infrastructure globally. Investor AB retains a minority stake.

Ares Management is one of the world's largest alternative-asset managers, with $595.7 billion in total assets under management, or AUM, including $367.6 billion in fee-earning AUM, at the end of September 2025. The company has four main business segments: private credit ($391.5 billion in total AUM and $240.2 billion in fee-earning AUM), private equity, ($25.1 billion/$11.8 billion), real estate/real assets ($132.4 billion/$80.5 billion), and other alternatives ($46.7 billion/$35.1 billion). The firm primarily serves institutional investors (80% of AUM) and high-net-worth individuals (20%). Ares operates through more than 35 offices in over 15 countries around the globe.

3i Group PLC is a closed-ended investment fund. It is an international investor engaged in private equity, infrastructure, and debt management. Its business segments are Private Equity, Infrastructure, and Scandlines. The private equity segment invests in business services, consumer, healthcare, and industrial sectors. Its infrastructure segment invests in utilities, transportation, and social infrastructure.

T. Rowe Price provides asset management services for individual and institutional investors. It offers a broad range of no-load US and international stock, hybrid, bond, and money market funds. At the end of September, the firm had $1.767 trillion in managed assets, composed of equity (50%), balanced (35%), fixed-income and money market (12%), and alternative (3%) offerings. Approximately two-thirds of managed assets are held in retirement-based accounts, which provides T. Rowe Price with a somewhat stickier client base than most of its peers. The firm also manages private accounts, provides retirement planning advice, and offers discount brokerage and trust services. The company is primarily a US-based asset manager, deriving less than 10% of its AUM from overseas.

Amundi resulted from the merger of the asset manager businesses of French banks Credit Agricole and Societe Generale in 2010. In 2017, it expanded into Italy, Germany, and Austria by acquiring Pioneer Investments, which had previously been UniCredit's asset manager. France accounts for just under half of assets under management, while Italy and the rest of Europe contribute about 30% combined. Assets from Asia are growing rapidly and contribute just shy of 20%. Amundi is the largest European asset manager and a top 10 asset manager globally. Credit Agricole remains a controlling shareholder with a 70% stake.

Two Point Zero Group PJSC is an investment firm involved in the energy and consumer sectors. Its portfolio incorporates AI-enabled and diversified assets designed to support operational efficiency and potential long-term returns. Its business operations are involved in: i) Energy & Infrastructure: renewable energy, infrastructure solutions, and regional mining across the energy value chain. ii) Consumer: media, mobility, retail, beauty, food, and packaging iii) Investments: institutions and fintech initiatives focused on long-term capital, synergies, and financial infrastructure development.

Carlyle Group is one of the world's largest alternative-asset managers, with $474.1 billion in total AUM, including $332.0 billion in fee-earning AUM, at the end of September 2025. The company has three core business segments: global private equity, which includes its private equity, real estate, infrastructure, and natural resources offerings (with $163.5 billion in total AUM and $101.1 billion in fee-earning AUM), global credit ($208.5 billion/$167.2 billion), and investment/fund solutions, known as Carlyle AlphInvest ($102.1 billion/$63.7 billion). The firm primarily serves institutional investors and high-net-worth individuals. Carlyle operates through 29 offices across five continents, serving more than 3,100 active carry fund investors from 87 countries.

Citibank established CVC Capital Partners in 1981 as its European venture capital business. Spun out as a wholly independent entity in 1993, CVC, in due course, transformed into a manager of private equity, private credit, real estate, and infrastructure funds. CVC invests most of its funds in Europe and the United States, with a smaller exposure to Asia.

EXOR NV is a private equity investment firm based in Amsterdam, Netherlands. The firm seeks to invest in the United States and Europe.

Ares Capital Corp is a United States-based closed-ended specialty finance company. Its investment objective is to generate both current income and capital appreciation through debt and equity investments. The company focuses on investing in first lien senior secured loans (including unitranche loans, which are loans that combine both senior and subordinated debt, generally in a first lien position) and second lien senior secured loans. In addition to senior secured loans, the company also invests in subordinated loans and preferred equity, it also makes common equity investments.

Bajaj Holdings and Investment Ltd is an investment holding company that chooses equities from both the public and private equity markets. The company is essentially a holding and investment company focusing on earning income through dividends, interest, and gains on investments held. The company's sectoral allocations to equity investments include Consumer Discretionary, Consumer Staples, Financials, Industrials, Materials, Real estate, Technology, Energy, Healthcare, and Communication Services.

Ackermans & Van Haaren NV is an investment company with five core business segments: Marine Engineering and Contracting, Private Banking, Real Estate, Energy and resources, and AvH and Growth Capital. The company has a long-term, activist orientation focused on making investments in growth companies with international exposure. A plurality of its net profit mix is derived from its Marine Engineering & Contracting segment, followed closely by its Private Banking & Real Estate division.

Sofina SA is a long-term oriented, investment holding company that favors allocating capital to entrepreneurs. The company also provides its investees access to a support network. Sofina only takes minority ownership positions in its long-term holdings with capital from its own balance sheet. Its portfolio holdings constitute the majority of its net asset value and come mostly from Europe. A smaller percentage of its net asset value base comes from investments in venture capital and private equity funds, mostly in the United States and in Asia.

Nippon Life India Asset Management Ltd is an asset management company managing equity and fixed-income mutual funds. It engages in managing mutual funds including exchange-traded funds (ETFs); managed accounts, including portfolio management services, alternative investment funds, and pension funds; and offshore funds and advisory mandates. The group mainly focuses on equity funds, debt funds, gold funds, liquid funds, ETFs, retirement funds, and others.

Compagnie du Cambodge is a holding company that manages portfolio of investments.

Brookfield Business Corp is a company established as a vehicle that owns and operates certain services and industrial operations on a world-wide basis and an alternative vehicle for investors who prefer investing in its operations through a corporate structure. Its goal is to generate returns through long-term capital appreciation with a modest distribution yield.

TPG Inc is an alternative asset management firm. It invests across five multi-product platforms, namely Capital, Growth, Impact, Real Estate, Market Solutions, and TPG Angelo Gordon. The company invests across a broadly diversified set of strategies, including private equity, impact, credit, real estate, market solutions, innovation, and inclusion.

Onex Corp is a private equity investor and asset management firm. The company operates in two reportable segments: Investing, which comprises the activity of investing Onex's capital, and Asset Management, which comprises the asset management activities provided by Onex to support its private equity and Credit strategies, as well as Onex's corporate functions. The majority of the company's revenue is generated through the Investing segment.

3i Infrastructure PLC is a closed-ended UK investment trust that invests in infrastructure, delivering long-term sustainable returns to shareholders and having a positive influence on its portfolio companies and stakeholders.

BOC International China Co Ltd is engaged in Investment banking business, securities brokerage business, asset management business, securities proprietary business, private equity investment business, futures business, and other businesses. It generates the majority of its revenue from the Securities brokerage business.

Wendel SE is a long-term, private equity investment firm that focuses on Africa, North America, and Europe. Over a third of the company's outstanding shares are concentrated in family wealth, which shares its name with the company. Its principal investments are in mobile telephone infrastructure, packaging and labels, paints, coatings and finishing products, and security services. It has two operating segments principal investments portfolio and private asset management platform which includes IK Partners - European private equity firm. The principal investments portfolio includes Bureau Veritas, Stahl, Scalian, CPI, ACAMS, Tarkett and Globeducate.

StepStone Group Inc operates as a fully integrated private markets solution provider. The company provides customized investment solutions and advisory and data services. It provides investment solutions in the areas of private equity, real estate, private debt, and infrastructure and real assets. The company consists of a single operating segment and a single reportable segment for accounting and financial reporting purposes.

Tikehau Capital SCA is an asset management and investment group that manages billions of assets and shareholders' equity. The group invests in various asset classes private debt, real estate, private equity, and liquid strategies including through Tikehau IM an asset management subsidiary that operates on behalf of institutional and private shareholders.

Eurazeo SE is an investment holding company operating as a conglomerate of four private equity segments. The company makes investments across a diverse array of industries and asset sizes, mostly in Europe. Eurazeo Capital, the company's greatest revenue contributor, makes investments in medium and large-sized companies above a certain asset threshold. Its other divisions consist of investments in small- and medium-sized companies, provide growth capital to smaller-sized enterprises, and make investments in real assets. The company is increasingly expanding into the Chinese, Brazilian, and American markets. Eurazeo measures performance by changes in net asset value.

Harbourvest Global Private Equity Ltd is a closed-ended investment company. Its investment objective is to generate superior shareholder returns through long-term capital appreciation by investing in a diversified portfolio of private equity investments as well as private market assets other than private equity where it identifies attractive opportunities. The company's revenue comprises of investment income including interest from cash and equivalents and dividends. The company has a presence in the North America, Europe, Asia, and Rest of World.

COFCO Capital Holdings Co Ltd is a provider of financial services. The company's services include trust, insurance, futures, banking and other financial services. It provides investment and asset management; corporate management; investment planning and consulting services.

Bridgepoint Group PLC is an international alternative asset fund management group, providing private equity and private debt lending solutions to the middle market. The reporting segments of the company are Private Equity, Credit, Infrastructure and Central out of which, the company derives maximum revenue from Private equity.

Ninety One PLC is engaged in the business of investment management. The company deals in four core asset classes - Equities, Fixed income, Multi-Asset and Alternative Strategies. It provides portfolio management, investment advisory, and other financial services.

InvestCo Holding is an investment company involved in making direct or indirect investments in different fields. It invests in renewable energy, mining, chemistry, iron-steel, technology, software, venture capital, food, and healthcare industries.

Fairfax India Holdings Corp is an investment holding company. The investment objective is to achieve long-term capital appreciation, while preserving capital, by investing in public and private equity securities and debt instruments in India and Indian businesses or other businesses with customers, suppliers, or business conducted in or dependent on India. The company operates through investing in India and Indian investments segment and it earns income through the source of interest and dividends.

HgCapital Trust PLC is an investment trust with the objective of long-term capital appreciation by investing in unquoted companies. It provides investors with a diversified portfolio of private equity investments. It offers investors a liquid investment vehicle to gain exposure to Hg’s diversified network of unquoted investments with minimal administrative burdens. Geographically, the majority is derived from the United Kingdom. It also has a presence in North America, Scandinavia, Germany & other Europe.

Bure Equity AB is a Sweden-based investment company. It is focused on long-term and active ownership, creating successful, profitable companies and a good long-term return for shareholders. Bure's portfolio is well diversified and comprises companies in different industries such as technology, medtech, industry, finance, consultancy, and others in their different phases of development. The company's investment portfolio includes both listed and unlisted companies.

Rocket Internet SE is a Germany-based company which provides software solutions. The company identifies internet and mobile business models and builds these either independently or invests in already existing companies. The company targets mainly new, underserved or untapped markets, in which new companies will be scaled to market leadership positions. It is focused on online business models to satisfy consumer needs across eCommerce, marketplace and financial technology sectors. Rocket Internet has flexible and scalable technology platform, which enables realizing several new projects per year in its five target regions Europe, Africa and Middle-East, Asia-Pacific, Russia and Commonwealth of the Independent States and Latin America.

Antin Infrastructure Partners specializes in the management of investment funds dedicated to infrastructure companies operating in the energy and environment, telecommunications, transportation, and social infrastructure sectors. It manages and advises funds that invest in infrastructure companies in Europe and North America across its Flagship, Mid Cap, and NextGen investment. The company operates in three geographical locations: France, the United Kingdom, and Luxembourg, with the majority of its revenue coming from France.

GIMV NV is a Belgium-based company active in investing in companies having growth potential, with the objective of supporting its growth into market leaders. The company invests with a focus on four platforms, which are also its segments: Consumer, Health and Care, Smart Industries, and Sustainable Cities. Its geographical segments include Belgium, Netherlands, Germany, France, and the Rest of Europe and Other countries.

Kinnevik AB is an operationally oriented investment group with an entrepreneurial focus on building digital brands. It concentrates its growth-style investment efforts on four sectors: TMT, e-commerce and marketplaces, Healthcare and financial services. Nearly all of its capital is committed to the communication e-commerce and marketplace sectors. The group, through its various subsidiaries, is geographically diversified and operationally present in over 80 countries. Kinnevik's bias is toward investing in emerging markets because of the opportunity afforded by these markets' reliance on legacy products and services. A key component of its is to create consumer choice of solutions in markets where supply may have been previously constrained.

Georgia Capital PLC is a platform for buying, building and developing businesses in Georgia and monetizing investments, as it mature. The Group currently holds investments in six large and investment stage private businesses, a healthcare services business, a water utility business, a retail (pharmacy) business, an insurance business (P&C and medical insurance), a renewable energy business, and an education business. The company also holds other small private businesses across different industries in Georgia, including housing development, hospitality and commercial property construction and development, wine and beer production, and digital, and auto service businesses through privately held subsidiaries.

Molten Ventures PLC is a venture capital investment company. The company invests in disruptive, high growth technology companies across Europe.

China Everbright Ltd is an investment management firm based predominantly in Hong Kong. The company's core activity includes investing in long-term investment vehicles to secure capital appreciation for its investors. Its investment portfolio is comprised of unlisted equity securities, equity derivatives, start-up, and development-stage companies and long-term equity. The company's operating segments include Fund Management Business and Principal Investments Business. Geographically, it generates maximum revenue from Mainland China.

Patria Private Equity Trust PLC is a UK-based investment trust company. The company's provides investors with exposure to private equity funds and private companies, mainly in Europe. Its investment objective is long-term total returns through holding a diversified portfolio of private equity funds and direct investments into private companies alongside private equity managers, a majority of which will have a European mid-market focus.