Ebang Valuation Multiples

Apple is among the largest companies in the world, with a broad portfolio of hardware and software products targeted at consumers and businesses. Apple’s iPhone makes up a majority of the firm sales, and Apple’s other products like Mac, iPad, and Watch are designed around the iPhone as the focal point of an expansive software ecosystem. Apple has progressively worked to add new applications, like streaming video, subscription bundles, and augmented reality. The firm designs its own software and semiconductors while working with subcontractors like Foxconn and TSMC to build its products and chips. Slightly less than half of Apple’s sales come directly through its flagship stores, with a majority of sales coming indirectly through partnerships and distribution.

Visa is the largest payment processor in the world. In fiscal 2025, it processed almost $17 trillion in total volume. Visa operates in over 200 countries and processes transactions in over 160 currencies. Its systems are capable of processing over 65,000 transactions per second.

Mastercard is the second-largest payment processor in the world, having processed close to $10 trillion in volume during 2024. Mastercard operates in over 200 countries and processes transactions in over 150 currencies.

Cisco Systems is the largest provider of networking equipment in the world and one of the largest software companies in the world. Its largest businesses are selling networking hardware and software (where it has leading market shares) and cybersecurity software such as firewalls. It also has collaboration products, like its Webex suite, and observability tools. It primarily outsources its manufacturing to third parties and has a large sales and marketing staff—25,000 strong across 90 countries. Overall, Cisco employs 80,000 people and sells its products globally.

Dell Technologies is a broad information technology vendor, primarily supplying hardware to enterprises. It focuses on premium and commercial personal computers, as well as enterprise on-premises data center hardware. It holds top-three market shares in its core markets of personal computers, peripheral displays, mainstream servers, and external storage. Dell has a robust ecosystem of component and assembly partners, and also relies heavily on channel partners to fulfill its sales.

KLA is one of the largest semiconductor wafer fabrication equipment, or WFE, manufacturers in the world. It specializes in the market segment of semiconductor process control, wherein machines inspect semiconductor wafers during research and development and manufacturing for defects and verify precise measurements. In this section of the market, KLA holds a majority share. It also has a small exposure to the etch and deposition segments of the WFE market. It counts as top customers the largest chipmakers in the world, including TSMC and Samsung.

American Express is a global financial institution, operating in about 130 countries, that provides consumers and businesses charge and credit card payment products. The company also operates a highly profitable merchant payment network. It operates in four segments: US consumer services, US commercial services, international card services, and global merchant and network services. In addition to payment products, the company's commercial business offers expense management tools, consulting services, and business loans.

Incorporated in 1911, International Business Machines, or IBM, is one of the oldest technology companies in the world. It provides software, IT consulting services, and hardware to help business customers modernize their technology workflows. IBM operates in 175 countries and employs approximately 300,000 people. The company has a robust roster of business partners to service its clients, which includes 95% of all Fortune 500 companies. IBM’s products, including Red Hat, watsonx, and mainframes, handle some of the world’s most important data workloads in areas like finance and retail.

Charles Schwab is one of the largest retail-oriented financial-services companies in the US, with $11.9 trillion in client assets across its brokerage, banking, asset management, custody, financial advisory, and wealth-management businesses at the end of 2025. While best known for its retail brokerage offering, Schwab generates the lion’s share of its revenue and profits through its Charles Schwab Bank and asset management segments. The firm is a dominant player in registered investment advisor custody, with over 40% market share, and has recently pushed into wealth management with robo-advisory, direct indexing, and other managed-investment solutions.

Foxconn Industrial Internet Co Ltd is engaged in the design, research and development, manufacturing, and sales of various electronic equipment products. The company's main products include communications network equipment, cloud service equipment, precision tools, and industrial robots.

Tokyo Electron is a major supplier of semiconductor fabrication tools. It operates primarily in the etching, deposition, and cleaning segments, which involve adding and removing materials to and from semiconductor wafers. Customers include leading-edge logic, foundry, and memory chipmakers such as Samsung Electronics, Intel, TSMC, and SK Hynix.

Founded in 1954 and headquartered in Tokyo, Advantest specializes in semiconductor test systems and is a well-known leader in automated test equipment, or ATE. Advantest also has a high market share in test systems for nonmemory semiconductors, including application processors for mobile phones. The company is also involved in peripheral businesses, such as semiconductor device transport equipment. Following its acquisition of Verigy in July 2011, Advantest holds a market share of over 50% in the ATE market.

Hitachi Ltd is engaged in diverse businesses spanning industries, energy, IT, and real estate. The company operates through four business segments. The Connective Industries segment covers elevators, escalators, home appliances, air conditioning, semiconductor manufacturing equipment, medical analyzers, industrial and distribution solutions, water and environmental solutions, and industrial equipment. The Digital Systems & Services segment offers system integration, consulting, cloud services, IT products, software, and ATMs. The Green Energy & Mobility segment focuses on power grids, renewable energy, nuclear power, and railway systems. The Others include real estate management, sales, and leasing. It generates the majority of its revenue from the Green Energy & Mobility segment.

Capital One is a diversified financial services holding company headquartered in McLean, Virginia. Originally a spinoff of Signet Financial’s credit card division in 1994, the company is now primarily involved in credit card lending, auto loans, and commercial lending. Following the acquisition of Discover in 2025, the firm also has a modest personal loan business, though credit card lending provides the majority of the bank's revenue.

S&P Global provides data and benchmarks to capital and commodity market participants. Its ratings business is the largest credit rating agency in the world and S&P's largest segment by profitability. S&P's largest segment by revenue is market intelligence, which provides desktop, data and advisory solutions, enterprise solutions, and credit/risk solutions mostly in the financial-services industry. S&P's other segments include energy (formerly commodity insights, this segment includes Platts and other data), mobility (Carfax), and indexes. S&P plans to spin off mobility in 2026.

Hon Hai Precision is the world's largest contract manufacturer of consumer electronics, communications, and computer products. It is the biggest supplier to Apple, whose business accounted for around 54% of overall revenue in 2023. Hon Hai is also involved in the production of upstream components such as electronic connectors, semiconductor packaging, and metal casings for smartphones, as well as producing servers. These upstream activities are mainly conducted through its listed majority-owned subsidiaries Foxconn Industrial Internet and FIH Mobile. In response to its traditional end markets of computers, smartphones, and telecom equipment maturing in 2019 it started on a strategy to develop expertise in three new growth areas-electric vehicles, digital health, and robotics.

Mitsubishi Corp. is Japan’s largest general trading house, or sogo shosha, a type of conglomerate unique to Japan. Its core role is that of a trading intermediary in a variety of industrial sectors, including resources businesses like energy and metals as well as non-resources businesses, both industrial ones like automotive and non-industrial ones like food, healthcare, and retail. In addition to acting as a trading intermediary (including midstream processing functions to convert inputs into final products), Mitsubishi also participates in upstream production businesses and downstream distribution businesses.

Based in Chicago, CME Group operates exchanges giving investors, suppliers, and businesses the ability to trade futures and derivatives based on interest rates, equity indexes, foreign currencies, energy, metals, and commodities. The Chicago Mercantile Exchange was founded in 1898 and in 2002 completed its IPO. Since then, CME Group has consolidated parts of the industry by merging with crosstown rival CBOT Holdings in 2007 before acquiring Nymex Holdings in 2008 and NEX in 2018. In addition, the company has a 27% stake in S&P Dow Jones Indices, making the Chicago Mercantile Exchange the exclusive venue to trade and clear S&P futures contracts. Through CME's acquisition of NEX, it also expanded into cash foreign exchange, fixed-income trading, and collateral optimization.

MercadoLibre runs the largest e-commerce marketplace in Latin America, with about 150 million active users and more than 600 million active listings across 18 countries stitching into its commerce network or fintech solutions when last reported. The company operates a host of complementary businesses to its core online shop, with shipping solutions (Mercado Envios), a payment and financing operation (Mercado Pago and Mercado Credito), advertisements (Mercado Clics), classifieds, and a turnkey e-commerce solution (Mercado Shops) rounding out its arsenal. MercadoLibre generates revenue from final value fees, advertising royalties, payment processing, insertion fees, subscription fees, and interest income from consumer and small-business lending.

Vertiv has roots tracing back to 1946 when its founder, Ralph Liebert, developed an air-cooling system for mainframe data rooms. As computers started making their way into commercial applications in 1965, Liebert developed one of the first computer room air conditioning, or CRAC, units, enabling the precise control of temperature and humidity. The firm has slowly expanded its data center portfolio through internal product development and the acquisition of thermal and power management products like condensers, busways, and switches. Vertiv has global operations today; its products can be found in data centers in most regions throughout the world.

Intuit serves small and midsize businesses with accounting software QuickBooks and online marketing platform Mailchimp. The company also operates retail tax filing tool TurboTax, personal finance platform Credit Karma, and a suite of professional tax offerings for accountants. Founded in the mid-1980s, Intuit enjoys a dominant market share for small-to-midsize business accounting and self-serve tax filing in the US.

Robinhood Markets Inc is creating a modern financial services platform. It designs its own products and services and delivers them through a single, app-based cloud platform supported by proprietary technology. Its vertically integrated platform has enabled the introduction of new products and services such as cryptocurrency trading, dividend reinvestment, fraud detection, derivatives, fractional shares, recurring investments, and others.

Intercontinental Exchange is a vertically integrated operator of financial exchanges and provides ancillary data products. Though the company is probably best known for its ownership of the New York Stock Exchange, which it acquired in 2013, ICE operates a large derivatives exchange, too. The company's largest commodity futures product is the ICE Brent crude futures contract. In addition to the exchanges business, which is about 54% of net revenue, Intercontinental Exchange has used a series of acquisitions to create its mortgage technology business (22% of net revenue) and fixed-income and data-services segment (24% of net revenue).

Moody’s, along with S&P Ratings, is a leading provider of credit ratings on fixed-income securities. The ratings segment, Moody’s Investors Service, includes corporates, structured finance, financial institutions, and public finance ratings. MIS represents a majority of the firm’s profit and often (depending on bond issuance levels) a majority of the firm's revenue. The other segment, Moody’s Analytics, consists of decision solutions, research and insights, and data and information.

Murata Manufacturing produces passive components for electronic devices. Passive components are necessary for all electronic circuits, used to enable wireless communication, store electricity and handle electric flow, remove electromagnetic noise from circuits, and so on. Thus, passive components are imperative for electronic circuits. For instance, one high-end smartphone contains more than 1,000 passive components. Murata Manufacturing is the world's leading supplier of passive components, such as MLCC and SAW filters.

Motorola Solutions is a leading provider of communications and analytics, primarily serving public safety departments as well as schools, hospitals, and businesses. The bulk of the firm's revenue comes from sales of land mobile radios and radio network infrastructure, but the firm also sells surveillance equipment, dispatch software, and other networking capabilities. Most of Motorola's revenue comes from government agencies, while roughly 25% comes from schools and private businesses. Motorola has customers in over 100 countries and in every state in the United States.

NAURA Technology Group Co Ltd engages in the research, development, manufacture, sale, and service of electronic equipment and components in the People's Republic of China. The company offers semiconductor equipment, including etching equipment, PVD and CVD equipment, oxidation/diffusion equipment, cleaning equipment, novel display equipment, gas mass flow controllers, etc., and vacuum heat treatment equipment and technical solutions for the semiconductors, photovoltaic equipment, vacuum electronic devices, magnetic materials, aerospace, and smart power grid sectors.

Mitsubishi Electric is a leading Japanese diversified industrial manufacturer, specializing in factory automation systems, power and energy systems, infrastructure solutions, automotive equipment, electronic devices, and home appliances. Founded in 1921 and headquartered in Tokyo, the company operates globally with a strong presence in Asia, Europe, and North America. Known for its technological expertise and high reliability, Mitsubishi Electric plays a vital role in sectors ranging from smart manufacturing and transportation to energy management and defense. The company emphasizes sustainability, innovation, and long-term growth through its focus on electrification, automation, and digitalization.

Bajaj Finance Ltd is the holding company for various financial services businesses under the Bajaj Group, which operates in India. The company is an NBFC in India offering payments, partnerships, services, and lending solutions to customers. The company's model is focused on the acquisition of customers and offering multiple loans and services on a cross-sell basis to meet their financial service needs. The company provides discretionary spending across consumer electronics, furniture, and digital products in India. The company's strategies and structure are closely aligned with those of commercial banks in India. All of its revenue is generated from India.

Nu Holdings Ltd provides digital banking services. It offers several financial services such as Credit cards, Personal accounts, Investments, Personal Loans, Insurance, Mobile payments, Business Accounts, and Rewards. The company earns the majority of its revenue in Brazil.

Hong Kong Exchanges and Clearing is a vertically integrated securities exchange business offering listing, data, trading, clearing and settlement services across equities, debt and derivatives. HKEx, like Hong Kong itself, functions as a gateway between China and the rest of the world. HKEx serves as a preferred listing venue for Chinese companies outside of China and, through the Connect Scheme, offers two-way trading for a growing group of financial products with the Shanghai Stock Exchange and the Shenzhen Stock Exchange.

Deutsche Boerse is a financial exchange company headquartered in Frankfurt, Germany. The company primarily generates revenue through its Eurex and Clearstream segments. Eurex allows for the trading and clearing of derivatives. Clearstream offers custody and settlement services for domestic and international securities, as well as collateral management services. Other segments include Xetra, which generates revenue through trading and clearing cash equities, STOXX (an index business), and several others.

London Stock Exchange Group is a fully integrated financial exchange company covering the financial market value chain from primary and secondary markets across multiple asset classes over data, index, and analytics down to clearing and post-trading reporting. With the acquisition of Refinitiv, LSEG generates about two thirds of its revenue from data and analytics including its FTSE Russell and WM/Refinitiv benchmarks as well as data feeds and terminals. The group is also a majority shareholder in Tradeweb, one of the dominant global fixed-income trading venues, as well as LCH, the largest clearinghouse for over-the-counter swaps globally.

Founded in 1971, Nasdaq is primarily known for its equity exchange, but in addition to its trading business (about 22.5% of sales), the company sells market and financial data to investors, offers Nasdaq-branded indexes, and lists companies through its capital access segment (42.5%). Nasdaq's newest segment, financial technology, was primarily constructed through the acquisitions of Verafin and Adenza and has expanded the company into capital management, financial crime, and regulatory compliance software (35%) as it seeks to become a diversified technology company.

Teradyne provides testing equipment, including automated test equipment for semiconductors, system testing for hard disk drives, circuit boards, and electronics systems, and wireless testing for devices. The firm entered the industrial automation market in 2015 and sells collaborative and autonomous robots for factory applications. Teradyne serves numerous end markets and geographies, directly and indirectly, through its products, but its most significant exposure is to semiconductor testing. Teradyne serves vertically integrated, fabless, and foundry chipmakers with its equipment.

Keysight Technologies is a leader in the field of testing and measurement, helping electronics OEMs and suppliers alike bring products to market to fit industry standards and specifications. Keysight specializes in the communications market, but also supplies into the government, automotive, industrial, and semiconductor manufacturing markets. Keysight’s solutions include testing tools, analytical software, and services. The firm’s stated objective is to reduce time to market and improve efficiency at its more than 30,000 customers.

Founded in 1930 and transformed over the decades through the acquisition of dozens of esteemed brands, Ametek owns more than 40 autonomous industrial businesses operating across research, aerospace, energy, medical, and manufacturing. Ametek segments its business into two operating groups: the electronic instruments group and the electromechanical group. The EIG sells a broad portfolio of analytical, test, and measurement instruments, while the EMG sells highly engineered components, interconnects, and specialty metals. The company emphasizes product differentiation and market leadership in the niche markets it operates in.

Suzhou Dongshan Precision Manufacturing Co Ltd is a China-based company mainly engaged in the research and development, production and sales of electronic circuit products, precision components, touch display modules, and light-emitting diode (LED) display devices. Its offerings include flexible, rigid, and rigid-flex printed circuit boards, high-precision metal parts, touch screens, LCD modules, and automotive display systems.

Advanced Micro-fabrication Equipment Inc is engaged in the development, production, and sales of equipment such as plasma etching equipment, deep silicon etching equipment, and metal organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) equipment for microelectronic devices such as integrated circuits and LED chips.

Founded in 2009, Block provides payment services to merchants, along with related services. The company also launched Cash App, a person-to-person payment network. In 2024, Square's payment volume was almost USD 250 million.

Workday is a software company that offers human capital management, financial management, and business planning solutions for enterprises. Known for being a cloud-only software provider, Workday was founded in 2005 and is headquartered in Pleasanton, California.

Constellation Software is an acquirer, manager, and developer of vertical market software, or VMS, businesses globally. VMS differentiates from horizontal software in that it provides mission critical solutions within a specific industry for customers in a particular market. Constellation operates through a decentralized model in which each business operates as its own independent entity. Managers of individual businesses are incentivized to optimize their business for returns on invested capital and revenue growth. Excess cash generated by the individual businesses is repatriated to portfolio managers who focus on allocating as much capital as possible on new acquisitions. As of 2025, Constellation consisted of over 1,000 individual businesses and 64,000 employees.

Hangzhou Hikvision Digital Technology is the world’s largest manufacturer of video surveillance equipment. Since then, the company has been growing its software and analytics offerings, as customers are increasingly seeking customized total solutions. Hikvision is also developing its Innovative businesses, which accounted for 21% of overall 2023 revenue. The smart-home business is powered by the EZVIZ consumer brand. Innovative business includes the development of industrial robotics, automotive electronics, X-ray sensors, infrared sensors, memory products and medical systems. Hikvision employs more than 58,000 people.

Lenovo is a global technology hardware company with a leading market share in personal computers. The firm has been actively growing its data center business, which primarily sells network servers to enterprise and hyperscale customers, as well as storage equipment through its mainland China joint venture with NetApp. Server-related revenue contribution has jumped to 13% of overall sales in fiscal 2024, from 6% in 2015.

Founded in 2012, Coinbase is the leading cryptocurrency exchange platform in the United States. The company intends to be the safe and regulation-compliant point of entry for retail investors and institutions into the cryptocurrency economy. Users can establish an account directly with the firm, instead of using an intermediary, and many choose to allow Coinbase to act as a custodian for their cryptocurrency, giving the company breadth beyond that of a traditional financial exchange. While the company still generates the majority of its revenue from transaction fees charged to its retail customers, Coinbase uses internal investment and acquisitions to expand into adjacent businesses, such as prime brokerage and data analytics.

Thomson Reuters is a leading global provider of business information services, delivering trusted data, technology, and expertise to professionals across legal, tax, accounting, risk, compliance, and the news and media sectors. Headquartered in Toronto, Canada, the company combines deep domain knowledge with data and software solutions to help clients make informed decisions, manage complexity, and drive efficiency. Thomson Reuters serves legal and accounting/tax professionals, corporations, and governments worldwide, but around 75% of revenue is generated in the US. The company is known for flagship products such as Westlaw, UltraTax CS, and Reuters News.

PayPal was spun off from eBay in 2015 and provides electronic payment solutions to merchants and consumers, with a focus on online transactions. The company had 434 million active accounts at the end of 2024. The company also owns Venmo, a person-to-person payment platform.

East Money Information Co Ltd is engaged in securities business, financial e-commerce service business, financial data service business, and Internet advertising service business. It mainly provides paid financial data services, financial e-commerce services, and Internet advertisement services through its Website, eastmoney.com. It generates majority of ots revenue from the securities business.