AB Dynamics Valuation Multiples

Tesla is a vertically integrated battery electric vehicle automaker and developer of real world artificial intelligence software, which includes autonomous driving and humanoid robots. The company has multiple vehicles in its fleet, which include luxury and midsize sedans, crossover SUVs, a light truck, and a semi truck. Tesla also plans to begin selling a sports car and offer a robotaxi service. Global deliveries in 2025 were nearly 1.64 million vehicles. The company sells batteries for stationary storage for residential and commercial properties including utilities and solar panels and solar roofs for energy generation. Tesla also owns a fast-charging network and an auto insurance business.

CATL, headquartered in Ningde, Fujian Province, is a global leading battery manufacturer founded in 2011. The company specializes in the development and production of lithium-ion batteries for EVs and energy storage systems. CATL is the largest EV battery manufacturer in the world and leads the industry in innovative battery technology development for higher-energy density and safety, longer battery service life and super-fast charging. CATL is also involved in the manufacturing of cathode and other related battery materials. Through its subsidiary Brunp, it works with customers to create a closed-loop battery life cycle from production, application, to recycling.

Founded in 1937, Toyota is one of the world's largest automakers, with 11.0 million units sold at retail in fiscal 2025, including 10.3 million across the Toyota and Lexus brands. Brands include Toyota, Lexus, Daihatsu, and truck maker Hino; market share in Japan is about 50% excluding mini-vehicles, while US share is around 14%. The firm also owns stakes in Denso, a parts supplier, about 20% of Subaru, and holds investments in many other firms, including shares of Uber Technologies, Joby Aviation, Aurora Innovation, Isuzu Motors, and about 5% in each of Mazda and Suzuki. Fiscal 2025 sales excluding financial services were JPY 43.8 trillion. Toyota also has a financing arm and manufactures homes and boats.

Uber Technologies is a technology provider that matches riders with drivers, hungry people with restaurants and food couriers, and shippers with carriers. The firm's on-demand technology platform is currently utilized by traditional cars as well as autonomous vehicles, but could eventually be used for additional products and services, such as delivery via drones or electronic vehicle take-off and landing (eVTOL) technology. Uber operates in over 70 countries, with over 202 million users who order rides or food at least once a month.

Founded in 1995, BYD is a leading Chinese manufacturer in the design, development, and production of new energy vehicles, or NEVs. In March 2022, the firm discontinued production of internal combustion engine, or ICE, vehicles. Its products primarily target the growing midpriced mass-market segment in China’s passenger vehicle market. The company sold about 4.3 million passenger NEVs in 2024, accounting for 35% of the Chinese passenger NEV market. Besides automobile production, the company is also engaged in handset components and assembly services, as well as the rechargeable battery and photovoltaics business. After more than 25 years of development, the company has established over 30 industrial parks worldwide.

Hyundai Motor Co is engaged in the manufacturing and distribution of motor vehicles and parts. The business of the group is operated through a vehicle, finance, and other segments. Its vehicle segment is engaged in the manufacturing and sale of motor vehicles. The finance segment operates vehicle financing, credit card processing, and other financing activities. The other segment includes the research and development, train manufacturing, and other activities. The company derives the majority of its revenue from the vehicle segment.

General Motors Co. emerged from the bankruptcy of General Motors Corp. (old GM) in July 2009. GM has eight brands and operates under three segments: GM North America, GM International, and GM Financial. The United States now has four brands instead of eight under old GM. The company regained its US market share leadership in 2022, after losing it to Toyota due to the chip shortage in 2021. 2025 US share was 17.4%, up 60 basis points from 2024. The Cruise autonomous vehicle arm, which GM now owns outright, previously operated driverless geofenced AV robotaxi services in San Francisco and other cities, but after a 2023 accident, GM decided that it will focus on personal AVs. GM Financial became the company's captive finance arm in 2010 via the purchase of AmeriCredit.

LG Energy Solution is the third-largest battery maker for electric vehicles with about 11% global share in 2024, according to SNE Research. The EV battery segment is the largest revenue contributor, which accounted for more than 60% of total revenue in 2024. LGES also manufactures batteries for mobility, mobile phones, laptops, electrical devices, and energy storage systems. The company was spun off from LG Chem’s battery division in December 2020 and listed on the Korea Exchange in January 2022. It has global manufacturing facilities in Korea, China, Poland, and the United States. Key customers include General Motors, Tesla, Volkswagen, Hyundai, and Stellantis.

Ford Motor Co. manufactures automobiles under its Ford and Lincoln brands. In March 2022, the company announced that it will run its combustion engine business, Ford Blue, and its BEV business, Ford Model e, as separate businesses but still all under Ford Motor. The company has over 13% market share in the United States, about 10% share in the UK, and just over 1% share in China including Taiwan and unconsolidated affiliates. Sales in the US made up about 65% of 2025 total company revenue. Ford has about 169,000 employees, including about 56,300 UAW employees, and is based in Dearborn, Michigan.

Sumitomo Electric Industries Ltd manufactures and sells electric wires and cables, and other products. The company operates through five segments. The Automotive related business covers wire harnesses, anti-vibration rubber, hoses, electrical parts, and traffic control systems. The Electronics related business provides electronic wires, flexible printed circuits, fluoropolymer products, and metal components. The Environment and Energy related business handles power transmission equipment, substation systems, vacuum and beam equipment, and conductive products. The Industrial Materials business includes steel wire, tools, optical components, and sintered parts. The Information and Communication business offers fiber optic cables, communication equipment, and optical devices.

Paccar is a leading manufacturer of medium- and heavy-duty trucks under the premium nameplates Kenworth and Peterbilt, which are primarily sold in the Americas and Australia, and DAF, which primarily services Europe and South America. The trucks segment (74% sales) goes to market through a network of 2,200 independent dealers. Paccar maintains an internal finance subsidiary that provides retail and wholesale financing for customers and dealers (6% sales). In recent years, Paccar has aggressively expanded its parts business (20% of sales), including engines, axles, and transmissions for its own truck brands as well as independent producers. The company commands 30% of the Class 8 market share in North America and 15% of the heavy-duty market share in Europe.

Mercedes-Benz Group is a premium automotive original equipment manufacturer, selling around 2 million passenger cars, including its Chinese joint venture, and just under 400,000 vans per year. The company's financial profile improved significantly following the spinoff of Daimler Truck in 2021. Unlike most automotive OEMs, Mercedes operates under its brand alone. In 2024, 14% of its passenger cars sold were top end (G Class, Maybach, AMG, S Class), 59% were core (C and E Class), and 27% entry (A and B Class). In volume terms, Asia and Europe are Mercedes' largest markets, each at just under 40% of 2024 vehicle sales, followed by North America at 16%.

Volkswagen is the second-largest automotive original equipment manufacturer by vehicle sales globally, selling 9 million vehicles in 2024. Its four vehicle segments core (Volkswagen, SEAT, Skoda, and VW commercial), progressive (Audi, Lamborghini, and Bentley), sports luxury (Porsche), and Traton commercial vehicles (Traton, Scania, Navistar, MAN, and VW truck and bus) contribute 43%, 20%, 11% and 14% to group revenue, respectively. It also has a vehicle software business (Cariad), batteries, power engineering production, and financial services.

BMW is a premium passenger car and motorcycle original equipment manufacturer, home to the brands BMW, Mini Cooper, Rolls-Royce, and BMW Motorrad. BMW sold 2.7 million vehicles in 2024 (2.5 million were passenger cars). In terms of sales volumes, Europe and Asia are BMW’s largest regions, contributing 40% and 37%, respectively. BMW's core competence is in the "affordable" luxury channel, with limited exposure to high-end priced vehicles.

Porsche designs, engineers, and manufactures premium cars synonymous with its racing history heritage, engineering mastery, sporty design, and driving experience. Porsche is uniquely positioned in that its brand is associated with luxury, but it produces cars on a much larger scale than its superluxury peers. Porsche sold 311,000 vehicles in 2024 at an average price of EUR 129,000. Europe, North America, mainland China including Hong Kong, and the rest of the world accounted for 36%, 28%, 18%, and 18% of volume in 2024, respectively. Ninety-two percent of revenue is generated from the sale of cars and related services, with the remainder from the captive finance arm. Porsche’s equity is tightly held with Volkswagen owning 75.4% and Porsche SE (the Porsche/Piech family) owning 12.5%.

Carvana Co is an e-commerce platform for buying and selling used cars. The company derives revenue from used vehicle sales, wholesale vehicle sales and other sales and revenues. The other sales and revenues include sales of loans originated and sold in securitization transactions or to financing partners, commissions received on VSCs and sales of GAP waiver coverage. The foundation of the business is retail vehicle unit sales. This drives the majority of the revenue and allows the company to capture additional revenue streams associated with financing, VSCs, auto insurance and GAP waiver coverage, as well as trade-in vehicles.

Garmin produces GPS-enabled hardware and software for five sectors: fitness, outdoors, automotive, aviation, and marine. Garmin has built a strong reputation for durable, high-precision devices through a vertically integrated design and manufacturing approach. The company’s product lines include smartwatches, fitness trackers, communication equipment, and a comprehensive suite of systems for marine and aviation navigation. Garmin operates globally, with its business focused primarily on North America and Europe.

Constellation Software is an acquirer, manager, and developer of vertical market software, or VMS, businesses globally. VMS differentiates from horizontal software in that it provides mission critical solutions within a specific industry for customers in a particular market. Constellation operates through a decentralized model in which each business operates as its own independent entity. Managers of individual businesses are incentivized to optimize their business for returns on invested capital and revenue growth. Excess cash generated by the individual businesses is repatriated to portfolio managers who focus on allocating as much capital as possible on new acquisitions. As of 2025, Constellation consisted of over 1,000 individual businesses and 64,000 employees.

Kia Corp is a Korean motor-vehicle manufacturer. It is engaged in manufacturing and selling finished vehicles and automotive parts, along with providing rental and maintenance services. The company's main products include passenger vehicles, recreational vehicles (RVs), and commercial vehicles. Its geographical segments include South Korea, America, Europe, and Others, of which it generates the majority of its revenue from South Korea.

Maruti Suzuki India Ltd, a subsidiary of Suzuki Motor Corp. The company is engaged in the manufacturing, purchase, and sale of motor vehicles, components, and spare parts. Its other activities include the facilitation of pre-owned car sales, fleet management, and car financing. The company manufactures various types of passenger vehicles and light commercial vehicles for its customers belonging to different income categories. Some of the vehicles manufactured by it are: WagonR, Dzire, Ertiga, Fronx (SUV), and others. Geographically, the company generates a majority of its revenue from its business in India and also engages in exports of its products to countries like Chile, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, Japan, Mexico, and others.

Weichai Power Co Ltd is an industrial technology company that offers vehicles and equipment manufacturing, and logistics and supply chain services in China. The operating segments of the company are; Engines segment which includes the manufacturing and sale of engines and related parts; Automobiles and automobile components which includes the manufacturing and sale of automobiles and automobile components other than Engines; Agricultural equipment includes the manufacturing and sale of agricultural equipment (complete machineries), agricultural machineries, agricultural vehicles, and related parts; and the Intelligent logistics segment which includes forklift trucks production, warehousing technology, and supply chain solution services.

Daimler Trucks is the largest global truck and bus original equipment manufacturer, producing around 500,000 trucks per year. It has the dominant share of the highly concentrated North American truck market, at just under 40%, with its brands Freightliner and Western Star. It also has a large share, just below 20%, of the European truck market with its Mercedes-Benz brand offering. Its segments of Trucks North America, Trucks Mercedes-Benz, Trucks Asia, and Daimler Buses contribute 41%, 33%, 11% and 9% to revenue, respectively; however, Trucks North America contributes disproportionately (64%) to EBIT. An in-house financial services arm supports these businesses. Daimler spun out of Mercedes-Benz in December 2021.

Incorporated in 1948, Honda Motor was originally a motorcycle manufacturer. Today, the firm makes automobiles, motorcycles, and power products such as boat engines, generators, and lawnmowers. Including joint ventures, Honda sold 3.7 million light vehicles and 20.6 million motorcycles in fiscal 2025, and consolidated sales were JPY 21.7 trillion. Automobiles constitute 65% of revenue and motorcycles 17%, with the rest split between power products and financial services. Honda also makes robots and private jets.

Denso was founded on Dec. 16, 1949, as Nippondenso, and is now a leading global manufacturer of automotive components, ranging from thermal and powertrain control systems to electronic and electrification solutions, headquartered in Kariya, Aichi Prefecture, Japan, and a core member of the Toyota Group.

Dassault Systèmes is a leading provider of computer-assisted design and product lifecycle management software, serving customers like Boeing and Volkswagen throughout the production process. The company’s flagship product, Catia, primarily serves the transportation, industrial equipment, and aerospace and defense industries. In life sciences, Dassault’s Medidata cloud platform optimizes clinical trial efficiency and is the leader in electronic data capture.

Bajaj Auto Ltd is an automotive sales company. The company is engaged in the business of development, manufacturing, and distribution of automobiles such as motorcycles, commercial vehicles, electric vehicles, etc., and parts thereof. The company sells its products in India as well as in various other global markets. It has three business segments Automotive, Investments, Financing and Others. The company derives the majority of its revenue from the Automotive segment.

Based in Hangzhou, Zhejiang province, Geely Auto manufactures and sells passenger vehicles and automotive parts. Geely is the largest local brand manufacturer and the third-largest passenger vehicle brand in terms of sales volume in China. Including Lynk, Geely sold about 2.2 million cars in 2024. The domestic market accounts for more than 75% of Geely’s revenue, with the rest coming from other parts of the world.

Rivian is a battery electric vehicle automaker that sells its vehicles in the US and Canada. The company also develops electronic control units and related software for autos in a joint venture with Volkswagen. Rivian has multiple vehicles in its fleet, which include a luxury truck and full-size SUV and a delivery van. The company plans to begin selling a midsize SUV in 2026. Total deliveries were over 42,000 in 2025. Rivian is also developing autonomous driving software to be used in its vehicles.

Suzuki Motor Corp is a Japan-based automobile manufacturing company. The company operates through Four-Wheel, Marine, Two-Wheel, and Other segments. The Four-Wheel segment covers mini cars, small cars, and regular cars. The Marine segment includes outboard motors, while the Two-Wheel segment handles motorcycles and ATVs. The Other segment consists of electric wheelchairs, solar power, and real estate. It generates the majority of its revenue from the Four-wheel business segment.

Stellantis was created out of the merger of US-based Fiat Chrysler Automobiles and French-based Peugeot in January 2021, resulting in the fourth-largest automotive original equipment manufacturer by vehicle sales. In 2024 it sold 5.5 million vehicles, 47%, 26% and 17% in Europe, North America, and South America, respectively. Its brands include Fiat, Jeep, Chrysler, Ram, Peugeot, Citroën, Opel, Alfa Romeo, and Maserati.

SAIC Motor Corp Ltd builds and sells passenger cars and commercial vehicles. The company operates its business through two segments: the Vehicle and Parts Segment and the Financial Services Segment. The Vehicle and Parts segment focuses on the manufacturing and sale of automobiles and components. The Financial Services segment is engaged in offering various financial solutions. It generates the majority of its revenue from the Vehicle and Parts Segment.

Seres Group Co Ltd is engaged in the research and development, production, sales, and service of complete vehicles, engines, and parts. The company's main products include the AITO series, covering new energy vehicles and traditional fuel vehicles.

Eicher Motors Ltd is an Indian automobile manufacturer and is also engaged in the retail of related components and accessories. The company manufactures two-wheeler motorcycles and commercial vehicles. The Motorcycles division, which derives its key revenue, produces motorcycles through the Royal Enfield brand. The Commercial Vehicles division, through a joint venture with Volvo, produces trucks and buses for sale in India and other developing markets. The company derives the vast majority of its revenue within India and also has a presence in overseas markets.

Knorr-Bremse AG is engaged in the development, production, marketing, and servicing of Automotive parts. It operates its business activities in two divisions: Rail Vehicle Systems and Commercial Vehicle Systems. Its product portfolio comprises Braking, entrance, and HVAC systems; power electric and control technology; digital solutions; couplers; signal systems; pneumatic braking systems; energy supply and distribution systems; wiper and wash systems; and others. Majority of revenue is from Rail Vehicle System. Its geographical segments are Europe/Africa, North America, South America, and Asia-Pacific.

Automobile manufacturer Great Wall Motor is China’s market leader in the SUV and pickup truck segments. In 2024, the company sold over 705,000 Haval-branded SUVs and 285,000 WEY- and Tank-branded SUVs, making it the largest SUV manufacturer by sales volume for the 15th year. It also sold more than 175,000 pickup trucks, also ranked number one in sales volume for 25 consecutive years. China’s domestic market accounts for about 60% of Great Wall’s revenue in 2024, with the balance coming from Russia, the Middle East, South Africa, Australia, and Chile, among others.

Huaqin Technology Co Ltd is engaged in the research & development, design, manufacturing, and operation of intelligent hardware products. The company operates four businesses: smart terminal business; high-performance computing business; automotive electronics and industrial products business; and artificial intelligence & internet of things (AIoT) business.

Founded in 2015, XPeng is a leading Chinese smart electric vehicle company that designs, develops, manufactures, and markets EVs in China. Its products primarily target the growing base of technology-savvy middle-class consumers in the midrange to high-end segment in China’s passenger vehicle market. The company sold over 190,000 EVs in 2024, accounting for about 2% of China’s passenger new energy vehicle market. It is also a leader in autonomous driving technology.

Li Auto is a leading Chinese NEV manufacturer that designs, develops, manufactures, and sells premium smart NEVs. The company started volume production of its first model Li One in November 2019. The model is a six-seater, large, premium plug-in electric SUV equipped with a range extension system and advanced smart vehicle solutions. It sold over 500,000 NEVs in 2024, accounting for about 4% of China's passenger new energy vehicle market. Beyond Li One, the company expands its product line, including both BEVs and PHEVs, to target a broader consumer base.

Samvardhana Motherson International Ltd is a manufacturer of automotive wiring harnesses and plastic components and modules. The products include wiring harnesses, mirrors for passenger cars, injection molded products, modules including dashboards, door trims, bumpers, blow moulded components, liquid silicone rubber molded components, injection molding tools, extruded rubber products, precision machined metal components, and others. The company has five reportable segments such as Wiring Harness, Modules and polymer products, Integrated Assemblies, Vision systems and Emerging businesses. It derives majority of the revenue from Modules and polymer products segment which is engaged in manufacturing and supplies of plastic parts and system modules for vehicle interiors and exteriors.

Aptiv PLC is an industrial technology company focused on enabling a more automated, electrified and digitalized future. The company's technologies reach from sensor to cloud, including the hardware and software necessary to support automotive and other industries on a global basis. Its Advanced Safety and User Experience segment provides advanced software and services, intelligent sensors and high-performance compute platforms; its Engineered Components Group segment provides connection systems, high-performance interconnects, and cable management and protection solutions; and its Electrical Distribution Systems segment provides low voltage and high voltage power, signal and data distribution.

BorgWarner is a tier one supplier of turbo and thermal management technologies, drivetrain systems, powerdrive systems, and battery and charging systems mostly to automotive original equipment manufacturers. Its products aim to move a vehicle with as few electrons as possible, resulting in cleaner, cost-optimized, and more-efficient vehicles. Foundational products, the combustion vehicle business, contributes more than 80% to group revenue while BorgWarner transitions to becoming an electric vehicle-centric parts supplier (e-business). In 2024, 23% of the company’s revenue was sourced from Volkswagen and Ford. Revenue is well diversified geographically, with approximately a third each generated in North America, Europe, and Asia.

Aurora Innovation Inc delivers self-driving technology safely, quickly, and broadly. The Aurora Driver is a self-driving system designed to operate multiple vehicle types, from freight-hauling trucks to ride-hailing passenger vehicles. It underpins Aurora Horizon and Aurora Connect, its driver-as-a-service products for trucking and ride-hailing. The Company is developing the Aurora Driver, a scalable suite of self-driving hardware, software, and data services designed as a platform to adapt and interoperate among vehicle types and applications.

Founded in 2012, Grab provides ride-sharing services, food and grocery delivery, and financial services (payments, consumer loans, and enterprise offerings) in eight Southeast-Asian countries through its mobile platform. The company partners with merchants and riders, connecting them with consumers while charging commission to both sides. Grab has a leading market share in and derives 89% of its revenue from its core businesses, ride-sharing and food delivery. Singapore, Indonesia, and Malaysia contributed more than 70% of revenue in 2024. Grab’s main competitors in Southeast Asia are Line Man and Goto. Its financial services business is still in its nascent stage and provides minimal revenue currently. The company now also generates advertising revenue.

Trimble Inc is a technology solutions provider that enables office and mobile professionals to connect their workflows and asset lifecycles to drive a more productive, sustainable future. The company has three reportable segments: Architects, Engineers, Construction, and Owners (AECO). This segment provides software solutions that sell through a direct channel to customers in the construction industry. Field Systems. This segment provides hardware and associated software solutions that sell through dealer partner channels. Transportation and Logistics (T&L). This segment provides solutions for customers working in long-haul trucking and freight shipping markets.

Ecopro BM Co Ltd is engaged in the development and production of secondary battery materials like precursors and cathode materials. Its products are used in electric vehicles, electric energy storage systems, uninterruptible power supply, smart grids, and ones for aerospace, medical and military purposes.

Niterra Co Ltd is engaged in the manufacture and sale of automotive components and ceramic products. The group has three reportable segments: Automobile related, Ceramics, and New Businesses. The Automobile related segment manufactures and sells spark plugs, exhaust gas sensors, and other automobile components. The Ceramics segment manufactures and sells cutting tools, industrial machinery parts, semiconductor manufacturing equipment parts, semiconductor packages, and medical oxygen concentrators. The New Businesses segment focuses on products related to environmental energy and other emerging fields.

Joby Aviation Inc is a transportation company developing an all-electric, vertical take-off and landing (eVTOL) air taxi for commercial passenger service. Its Joby eVTOL aircraft is designed to transport a pilot and up to four passengers or an expected payload of up to 1,000 pounds at speeds of up to 200 mph. The aircraft is optimized for urban routes, with a target range of up to 100 miles on a single charge. The company is also developing an app-based platform to build and operate an aerial ridesharing service powered by a network of eVTOL aircraft that it will manufacture and operate. It has one operating and reportable segment, namely flight services. Currently, the company generates all of its revenue from flight services provided to the Department of Defense in the United States.

Porsche Automobil Holding SE is an automotive holdings company. The company's core investment is a controlling stake in Volkswagen AG. Through this stake, Porsche SE has an interest in passenger and luxury car manufacturers which include Volkswagen, Audi, SEAT, SKODA, Bentley, Bugatti, Lamborghini, and Porsche; motorcycles under the Ducati brand name; and commercial vehicles under Volkswagen Commercial Vehicles, Scania, and MAN. In addition to the automobile manufacturers, this core investment provides Porsche Automobil exposure to the Volkswagen Financial Services financing business. Porsche SE also has a minority stake in technology company INRIX, a company that provides connected-car services and real-time traffic information.